Biology HSC Science (General) 12th Standard Board Exam Maharashtra State Board Syllabus 2025-26

• Definition: Vegetative Reproduction or Vegetative Propagation
• Advantage
• Disadvantage

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Stamen (Male Reproductive Unit)

1. Stamen
2. Anther development
3. Structure of Anther
4. T. S. of Anther

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Microsporangium

1. Microsporangium
2. Structure of microspore
3. Microsporogenesis

• Pre-fertilization in Plant: Pollen Grain

1. Pollen grain
2. Male gametophyte
3. Development of Male Gametophyte
4. Pollen product
5. Pollen viability
6. Pollen allergy

• Pistil (female Reproductive Unit)
• Ovule
• Forms of ovule

1. Orthotropous ovule
2. Anatropous ovule
3. Hemi-anatropous ovule
4. Campylotropous ovule
5. Amphitropous ovule
6. Circinotropous ovule

• Pre-fertilization: Megasporangium

1. Megasporangium
2. Megasporogenesis

• Formation of Embryo Sac
• Cellular Organisation of Embryo Sac

• Definition: Pollination

• Definition: Self-pollination

• Definition: Cross-pollination

• Definition: Fertilization
• Definition: Syngamy
• Definition: parthenogenesis
• Gamete Fusion in Sexual Reproduction
• External vs. Internal Fertilization

• Definition: Embryogenesis
• Introduction

• Process of Seed Formation
• Fruit Formation and Structure
• Fate of Ovary Parts in Fruit

• Definition: Apomixis
• Types
• Mechanisms
• Significance

• Definition: Parthenocarpic Fruits
• Definition: Parthenocarpy
• Causes of Parthenocarpic Fruit Formation
• Significance in Horticulture

• Importance of Life Span
• Definition: Reproduction

• Mode of Reproduction in Animal:

1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

• Structure
• Components
• Definition: Seminal fluid or Semen
• Definition: Ejaculation

• Maturation and capacitation of spermatozoa
• Structure of ovum
• Coitus
• Egg Types
• Passage of sperm in female genital tract
• Ovum-sperm interaction in fallopian tube
• Fertilization of the ovum
• From Egg to Embryo

• Definition: Embryogeny
• Definition: Gametogenesis

• Implantation in Humans
• Implantation duration and process
• Implantation bleeding

• First Trimester
• Second Trimester
• Third (final) Trimester

• Placenta 
• Functions of Placenta

• Introduction
• Causes of Infertility
• Finding the Cause
• Finding a Remedy
• Coping with Infertility

• Types of gene interaction:

1. Intragenic interactions
2. Intergenic (non-allelic) interactions

1. Incomplete dominance
2. Co-dominance
3. Multiple alleles
4. Pleiotropy

• Discovery of Chromosomes
• Chromosomes
• Variation in Chromosome Number (ploidy)
• Structure of a Chromosome

• Linkage
• Types of linkage: Complete linkage and Incomplete linkage
• Linkage Groups
• Sex-linkage: Complete sex linkage and Incomplete sex linkage
• Crossing Over
• Morgan’s Experiments showing linkage and crossing over

• Autosomal Inheritance

1. Widow’s peak
2. Phenylketonuria (PKU)

• Genetic Disorders
• Examples of Genetic Disorders

• Genomics
• Classification of Genomics

1. Structural genomics
2. Functional genomics

• Application of genomics

• Origin of life
• Theories of origin of life

1. Big Bang Theory
2. Theory of Panspermia
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis
4. Theory of Biogenesis
5. Theory of Chemical Origin
6. Urey and Miller's experiment

• Chemical Evolution of Life (Self-assembly Theory of the Origin of Life)

1. Origin of Earth and Primitive atmosphere
2. Formation of ammonia, water, and methane
3. Formation of simple organic molecules
4. Formation of complex organic molecules
5. Formation of Nucleic acids
6. Formation of Protobionts or Procells
7. Formation of first cell
   - Urey and Miller’s Experiment
   - RNA World Hypothesis

• Morphological Evidences
• Anatomical Evidences
• Vestigial Organs
• Palaeontological Evidences
• Connecting Links
• Embryological Evidences

• Introduction
• Activity 1
• Activity 2
• Activity 3

• Water Potential (ψ)
• Factors affecting water absorption

• Pathway of water across the root
• Two ways of Pathway of water

1. Apoplast pathway
2. Symplast pathway: Vacuolar and Transmembrane

1. Root Pressure Theory (Vital Theory)
2. Capillarity theory (physical force theory)
3. Cohesion-tension theory (Transpiration pull theory)
4. Adhesion

• Path of translocation

1. Vertical translocation 
2. Lateral translocation

• Mechanism of sugar transport through phloem

• Types of Transpiration

1. Stomatal Transpiration
2. Cuticular transpiration
3. Lenticular transpiration

• Opening and Closing of Stoma

• Plant Growth
• Aspect of growth:

1. Quantitative aspect of growth
2. Qualitative aspect of growth

• Meristems:

1. Apical meristem
2. Intercalary meristem
3. Lateral meristem

• Phases of Plant Growth

1. Phase of cell division/ formation (Meristematic Phase)
2. Phase of cell enlargement/ elongation (Elongation Phase)
3. Phase of Cell maturation/ differentiation (Maturation Phase)

• Growth Rates
  1) Arithmetic growth
  2) Geometric growth

• Growth curve:
  a) Lag Phase
  b) Log Phase
  c) Stationary Phase

• Plant Hormones
• Types of Plant Hormones

• Auxins
• Physiological effects and applications of auxin

• Gibberellins
• Physiological effects and application of Gibberellins

• Cytokinin
• Physiological effects and applications of cytokinin

• Ethylene
• Physiological effects and application of ethylene

• Abscisic Acid
• Physiological effects and application of ABA

• Photoperiodism

1. Short Day Plants (SDP)
2. Long Day Plants (LDP)
3. Day Neutral Plants (DNP)

• Phytochrome

• Vernalization
• Advantages of vernalization

• Sources of minerals
• Classification of minerals on the basis of their quality requirement:

1. Essential minerals 
2. Non-essential minerals 

• Classification of minerals on the Basis of their quantity requirement:

1. Microelement minerals
2. Macroelement minerals

• Symptoms of Mineral deficiency in plants
• Toxicity of Micronutrients
• Minerals salt absorption: Passive Absorption and Donnan equilibrium

• Introduction to Respiration
• Types of Respiration

• Gaseous exchange in plants 
• Respiration in Animals 

• Respiratory System
• Exchange of Gases in Lungs
• Significance of Respiration

• Mechanism of Respiration
• Steps of Respiration

• Neural control
  1) Respiratory rhythm centre
  2) Pneumotaxic centre
• Chemical Control
  1) Chemosensitive Area
  2) Chemoreceptors

Disorders of the respiratory system

• Emphysema
• Chronic bronchitis
• Acute bronchitis
• Sinusitis
• Laryngitis
• Pneumonia
• Asthma
• Occupational Respiratory Disorderssilicosis, asbestosis

• Circulation
• Blood vascular system
• Types of blood vascular system

1. Open circulation
2. Closed circulation

• Types of Closed Circulation:

1. Single circulation
2. Double circulation
   - Systemic circulation
   - Pulmonary circulation
   - Coronary circulation

• Hepatic Portal System

• Blood Circulatory System
• Blood vascular system
• Blood Composition
• Blood Coagulation (Clotting)

• Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
• Blood clotting in a test tube

• Structure of the Heart
• Layers of the Heart Wall
• Chambers of the Heart
• Valves of the Heart
• Pathway of Blood through the Heart

• Cardiac Cycle
• Atrial systole (AS)
• Ventricular systole (VS)
• Cardiac output (CO)

• Blood Vessels: Structure and Functions
• Capillaries

• Lymph and Lymphatic System
• Composition of Lymph
• Functions of Lymph

Internal respiration

• Transport of oxygen
• Transport of CO₂

• External respiration / Exchange of gases at the alveolar level
• Pulmonary volumes and capacities

Cellular Respiration

• Oxidation
• Phosphorylation

• Neuron
• Types of neurons

1. Unipolar neurons
2. Bipolar neurons
3. Multipolar neurons
4. Sensory or afferent neurons
5. Motor or efferent neurons
6. Association (connecting) neurons

• Nerve
• Types of Nerve

1. Sensory nerves
2. Motor nerves
3. Mixed nerves

• Difference between Neuron and Nerve

• Introduction
• Components of Nervous System
• Neuron
• Need of Nervous System

• Central Nervous System
• Different regions of Brain and its functions

Forebrain: 

1. Olfactory lobes
2. Cerebrum
3. Diencephalon

• Spinal Cord 
• T. S. of spinal cord
• Functions of the spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System
• Types of PNS

• Sensory Receptor
• Classification of receptors

1. Exteroceptors: Receive external stimuli
2. Interoceptors : Receive stimuli coming from within the body
   
   

• Structure and Components
• Photoreceptors and Eye Muscles

• Structure of Human Ear
• Function of Human Ear

• Psychological disorders
• Parkinson's disease
• Alzheimer’s disease

Chemical Coordination

1. Autocrine 
2. Paracrine 
3. Endocrine 
4. Pheromone 

Human Endocrine System

• Properties of Hormones 
• Mechanism of hormone action 

• Synapse
• Properties of nerve fibres

Types of synapses

1. Electrical synapse
2. Chemical synapse

Generation of nerve impulse

1. Depolarization
2. Re-polarization

• Reflex Action
• Types of Reflex actions

• Autonomic Nervous System
• Reflex Action

• Immune System
• Cells of Immune System

1. Lymphocytes
   - Mechanism of response of T-lymphocytes to antigens
   - Mechanism of action of B-lymphocytes to antigens
2. Antigen Presenting cells

• Vaccination
• Immunization

• Antibody
• Immunoglobulins
• Structure of Antibody
• Formation of antigen-antibody complex
• Antigen on Blood Cells
• ABO Blood Groups
• Rh factor

• Introduction
• Identification of disease

• Vector
• Vector Borne Diseases: Mosquitoes, Cockroaches and Rats

1. Malaria
2. Elephantiasis (filariasis)
3. Yellow fever
4. Dengue

• Control of mosquitoes:

1. Spraying
2. Elimination of breeding places
3. Spraying on stagnant water
4. Biological control

• Introduction of Cancer
• Differences between normal cell and cancer cell
• Causes of cancer
• Cancer detection and diagnosis
• Treatment of cancer
• Scope of Immunology

• Introduction
• Meaning
• Stages of Adolescence
• Development of Sexual and Secondary Sexual Characters
• Physical Changes during Adolescence
• Emotional and Social Changes
• Adolescence as a Phase

• Drugs, Tobacco, and Alcohol Use- An Invitation to Death
• Effects of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
• Prevention and Control of Drug Abuse

Plant breeding 

Plant breeding

• Hybridization and its technique
  Steps of Hybridization technique
  Indian Hybrid Crops 
• Mutation Breeding

         -Plant Breeding for Developing a Resistance to Insect Pest

• Agro-Complementary Occupations
• Animal Husbandry

• Proper Care for Optimal Yield
• Dairy Farm Management
• Protecting the Cattle from Diseases
• Livestock Management: Sheep, Goats, and Horses

• Poultry Farm Management
• Components of Poultry Farm Management
• Egg and Broiler Production
• Poultry Disease

• Apiculture
• Types of Honey Bee
• Polymorphism in honey bee
• Artificial bee hive

• Introduction
• The Life Cycle of Silk Worm

Microbes in human welfare

• Microbes in food preparation

1. Dosa, Dhokla and Idli
2. Microbes as the Source of Food
3. Dairy Products

• Introduction to Biotechnology
• Benefits of Biotechnology

1. Isolation of DNA (gene) from the donor organism
2. Insertion of a desired foreign gene into a cloning vector (vehicle DNA)
3. Transfer of rDNA into the suitable competent host or cloning organism
4. Selection of the transformed host cell
5.  Multiplication of transformed host cell
6.  Expression of the gene to obtain the desired product

Bioethics

• Herbicide Use and Resistance
• Effects on Untargeted Species

Effects of Biotechnology on Human Health

• Allergies
• Long-Term Effects
• New Proteins
• Food Additives

Population

•  Natality

1. Absolute Natality
2. Realized Natality

•  Mortality

1. Absolute Mortality
2. Realized Mortality

• Sex ratio
• Age distribution and Age pyramid
• Population Growth 

• Introduction
• Diversity in Animal Food
• Reproduction in Animals
• Classification of Animals Based on Habitat

Levels of Biodiversity

• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecological (Ecosystem) diversity

• Green House Effect
• Green House gases